scripta+5+Latin+2+2016

1/30 esurienti ne occurras: do not meet ( run into) the hungry man; a poor, starving person is potentially dangerous novus homo: a new man; was the term in ancient Rome for a man who was the first in his family to serve in the Roman Senate or, more specifically, to be elected as consul. It can also, apparently, be used in an evolutionary sense: Sheldon, homo novus

novice: one who is new at something esurient: hungry ( note the nt...ing...hungering? being hungry?)

The Gracchi brothers did attempt to address the problem of a dwindling pool pf men #|eligible for the military and the growing urban poor ( many of whom had in fact served, so they were trained to fight...what a nightmare), but it was not enough, especially at a time when the the campaigns were moving farther and farther away, fighting new enemies such as the encroaching Germanic tribes who would not end their raping, pillaging, and hostile takeover of Roman land so that the harvesting could be #|completed. Into this mix of #|events came Gaius Marius, a novus homo, a member of the municipal aristocracy of Arpinum. Marius, a man of extraordinary military talent, would prove to be the catalyst necessary to successfully reform the Roman military and change the course of the Roman Republic forever. The stage for his reforms was set by another war in Africa: The Jurgurthine War. Here is what our friends at #|Notre Dame have to say about it:

Jugurthine War 111-104 BCE
First consulship 107 BC 1.Marius won the election, although Metellus tried to obstruct it by detaining him in Africa. 2. The Plebeian Assembly vote him command of Africa ( as a novus homo no less!!!! this was no small accomplishment!)
 * 1) Was fought in Numidia, against its king, Jugurtha.
 * 2) Numidia's rule had been left to three brothers, who fought for control.
 * 3) In the #|process, Jugurtha, one rival, took Cirta, an important port city for grain, massacring many Roman merchants there.
 * 4) Rome tried to settle dispute by dividing the territory, but to no avail.
 * 5) In 111, people in Rome grew incensed over lack of action, so the consuls and senate were shamed into declaring war. Accusations of bribery had been leveled.
 * 6) Roman generals, at first, were unable to defeat the wily Jugurtha.
 * 7) Metellus took command, was more successful, but could not capture the king.
 * 8) Metellus blamed for prolonging the war, which tradesmen wanted ended as soon as possible.
 * 9) Marius encouraged such thinking, hoping to win a consulship.

2/5

Fortes fortuna iuvat.: Fortune favors the brave. You make your own luck.

Facta non verba.: Deeds, not words

fortitude: strength cruciverbalist( good one!):a maker of crossword puzzles(crux + verbum)

The Caesar branch of the Julii family, as impeccably Roman and patrician as they could come, had completely fallen from political prominence and at this point, didn't have the personal wealth to change matters. Likely heavily influenced by Marius' money, as he was socially considered an uneducated, ill-mannered barbarian, a marriage was arranged between Julia Caesar and Gaius. Marius gained the benefit of entry into social and political circles that he would never have had, and the Julii were immediately re-established as a power player through the financing of political campaigns by Marius.

Metellus was recalled even though the senate wanted to continue his service in Numidia as Proconsul. Through more political wrangling (some say illegal), Marius managed to be appointed as commander in Africa. Due to a military crisis from Germanic victories in Gaul, Marius was forced to take unprecedented measures and recruit his armies from the Roman landless masses. Even so, within two years, Marius completed what he said he would, conquering Numidia and putting an end to the war. Though, there was military success in the field, it was through the service of a young patrician officer, Lucius Cornelius Sulla media type="file" key="06 - Bad To The Bone.mp3" width="240" height="20" that the war finally came to a close. Jugurtha himself was betrayed by his ally Bocchus, the King of Mauretania, into the arms of the Romans. Sulla organized the capture, but Marius, having imperium as Consul, would receive the credit, while Sulla maintained the war only ended through his achievement. The incident was the beginning of a terrible rivalry between the two men that would have monumental repercussions in later years. 2/5

Gutta cavat lapidem: the drip hollows the stone

Nemo me impune lacessit.: No one attacks me with impunity ( motto of the Crown of Scotland)

impunity: lacking punishment cavity: a hollow place

http://www.unrv.com/empire/rise-of-marius.ph

Marius, however, knew exactly how to win a victory, and how to use a victory:

__//**Marius' army reforms:**//__

When Marius became consul (107 BCE) after his Numidian command, he became sure of himself and began to taunt the aristocracy. Plutarch suggests that Marius had a sympathy with the lower class because he himself grew up in the remote town of Arpinum. According to the source, Marius in his speech no longer wanted to force the landed aristocracy to enlist in the army if they did not want to, and he invited volunteers to enlist. ||  || The landless poor, who had received no help from the state, were now recruited into the army, a community in which they were taken care of. The recruits had to take an oath, the sacramentum, upon enlistment which was a promise to serve loyally and obediently. The promise was made to the general. ||
 * The need for land reform had been felt for years by the army and by the small landholders, who feared losing their land whenever they were called for military service. The Gracchi brothers had seen the need of the people and had attempted land reform to fill the ever dwindling ranks of an army constituted by landholders. Gaius Gracchus had instituted such reforms as the state supply of equipment and clothes to legionnaires and the forbidding of enlistment of men under 17. These were meant to ease the economic hardships felt by the small farmers serving their military duties. These reforms, however, are more significant in the lengths the state was willing to go to remedy the declining army than in the good the reforms actually accomplished.
 * //** Marius enrolled volunteers without thought to class or money, and they were quick to join with the prospects of booty and land. Marius was also careful to enlist veterans. The Senate did not oppose Marius' bold move for, according to Sallust, they believed that he would lose his popularity by inviting plebeians into the army. If anything, Marius' removal of the land requirement won him more popularity from the small landowners, who did not wish to lose or destroy their land by forced military service, and from the plebeians who had a chance at improving their financial situation through winning treasure and land through war. **//

The long-lasting effects of the army reform is a shifting of loyalty from the state to the commanders of the armies ( imperator=one with imperium=the right to levy and command an army). Eventually this shift can be seen as a necessary element to the disintegration of the Republic.

Conscripted soldiers were soon replaced by professional soldiers, who served on average for about 16 years. The sacramentum was an oath of loyalty taken by all recruits enlisted in the army. After a soldier's service was over the state had no responsibility to take care of him; whereas, the generals of the armies took on the responsibility of finding soldiers land and means of survival. In each of these aspects of the new army, loyalty and dedication to the general precedes loyalty to the state. Those soldiers who had once been the urban poor had no future except the army, and so they looked to their generals to make the state give them what they needed.

http://faculty.vassar.edu/jolott/old_courses/republic1998/marius/effects.htm

[|marius' reforms]

Hello! The Senate just took itself out of the loop!!!!! Duh!

2/9


 * De duobus malis, minus est semper eligendum.: of two evils the lesser must always be chosen(Thomas Kemp //Imitation of Christ//) **

in effigie: in likeness

imperious: Assuming authority without justification; arrogant; domineering.

effigy: 1. A crude figure or dummy representing a hated person or group.

2. A likeness or image, especially of a person. This is a method of protest. American presidents seem to be perpetually being burned in effigy abroad. If they don't like us, they can always not cash our checks in protest, but no...cash our checks and insult our leaders...

dictionary.com





marian reforms

Besides the social impact of Marius' decision, he made several major changes to legion structure and tactical formations. Most importantly, he mostly replaced the maniple structure which consisted of four distinct legionary units (though it did continue as a style of formation at least until the mid 1st century AD). Each used different weapons, served different purposes tactically and were arranged in varying sizes and formations, essentially based on the class of citizen they were recruited from. Each soldier in the pre-Marian system provided his own gear and armor, resulting in wide ranges in quality and completeness. Marius supplied his new army's gear partially through the resources of the state, and through his own vast wealth. In the future, most new recruits would be uniformly equipped through the state treasury, or thier recruiting general.

To replace the maniple as a formation, the cohort was adopted (though the formation had been used in moderation at least since the Punic Wars). Each soldier was equipped the same and assigned to one of six identical centuries of 80 men, making up the cohort unit. There were then 10 cohorts of 480 men making up a legion, which standardized the entire system. The legion was made into a single large cohesive unit with interchangeable parts, capable of tactical flexibility not available with the complex structure of the Republican manipular system. The long single lines used prior to Marius were also eliminated in favor of a tiered 3 cohort deep battle line. This allowed rapid and easy support or rotating of fresh troops into combat.

Additionally, officers began to be recruited from within the ranks on a regular basis. While political appointments and promotions based on social or client status would still occur, this now allowed the common soldier a way of advancing based on merit. This improved the strength of the legion as a whole and instilled confidence in the soldiers, knowing their officers were capable leaders, not favored clients of Senators in Rome. Marius, while adopting uniform gear for all, such as the gladius and scutum, also made significant changes to the common legionary spear (the pilum). It was made for the point to break off upon impact, making it ineffective to be thrown back by the enemy.

To eliminate another problem, the way the soldier's kits and baggage were carried was completely adjusted. From this point on, the legionary would carry their entire standard package including weapons, armor, food, tents, supplies and tools. The "Marius' Mules" allowed bulky, slow and cumbersome baggage trains to be shortened, making the infantry faster and more efficient. Finally, the legionary standards of the Eagle, wolf, minotaur, horse and boar were reduced to a single standard. The Eagle, representing Jupiter Optimus Maximus, replaced them all as the single symbol or loyalty, duty and pride among the soldiers.

our friends at vassar have pretty charts to illuminate this topic [|what does polybius say about it?]

[|and to put all this in context]

2/16 Nervi belli pecunia infinita : Unlimited money is the muscle of war.

Bis peccare in bello non licet It is not allowed to err twice in a war.

impeccable: without sin or error; perfect impecunious: without money; broke

= The Cimbri et Teutones = Just as Marius was coming to power as Consul in 107 BC, a major migration by Germanic (perhaps Celtic) Cimbri was causing consternation along Rome's northern frontier. Apparently under threat of starvation from poor harvests and from external threats by other tribes, the Cimbri were on the move looking for new, more promising land. By 113 BC, the Germanics made their first appearance in Roman written history.

The Romans were struggling to deal with this growing threat to the north. They had their fanny handed to them a couple times when Marius shows up to save the day. There was a completely inept Roman general, Carbo, who had been routed and humiliated, and who had committed suicide in disgrace in 112. The Cimbri continued their march West toward Gaul, closer and closer to Roman territory...and the Romans cannot have that. The Cimbri had a few other victories as well, and the Romans were getting really really nervous.

The Barbarians Are Coming!!!

2/18 ignorantia legis neminem excusat: Ignorance of the law excuses no one.

Quicguid necessitas cogit, defendit: whatever necessity compels, it defends

inexcusable: not able to be excused legislation: laws

In 105 BC, Marius is elected consul to bring his military mojo to the northern frontier. The Cimbri did not engage immediately and consequently, Marius was re-elected consul an unprecedented five successive consulships. This is generally accepted to be proof of the massive confidence the Romans had in Marius' abilities. In 104 BC, however, the Cimbri had moved on, and Marius spent the time reforming his legions, building roads and generally improving the condition of the provincial public works. Within 2 years, the Cimbri had joined up with more Germanics, including the Teutons, Helvetii and Ambrones. Failing to win new land in Spain from the Celts, they returned to what they may have thought would be easier adversaries in the Romans. In 102 BC, the Cimbri moved around the Alps to the eastern side of Italy preparing to invade. The Teutones moved to the west and followed the Alps south along the coast into Italy. Marius caught the Teutones and Ambrones at the battle of Aquae Sextiae late in the year 102 BC. This time, under competent Roman command, the Germanics were annihilated, and the Romans could focus on their other enemy, the Cimbri.

By early 101 BC, the Cimbri moved down from the Alps and started to press into eastern Italy. An army, technically under the command of Q. Lutatius Catulus, but practically led by Marius' subordinate Sulla, met the Cimbri at Vercellae. Again, the Germanic invaders were crushed with losses approaching 100,000. 2 great Germanic tribes were nearly routed completely from historical existence, and the 3 Roman commanders bickered over who could claim the victory. In the end, Marius shared a joint triumph with Catulus, but it was Marius who was heaped with the credit by the Roman people, and he was named the 'savior of Rome'. Perhaps, even more significant than the victory, was the political and personal impact. While Marius, without an enemy to fight, would soon prove his inability as a politician, the personal rivalry between Marius and Sulla grew ever more fractured .

the barbarian threat to the North

2/22

non ducor, duco: I am not led, I lead
 * quorum || of whom -- the number of members whose presence is required under the rules to make any given meeting constitutional ||

seduce: to lead to one's self (oohlala!) transducer: a device that receives a signal in the form of one type of energy and converts it to a signal in another form: A microphone is a transducer that converts acoustic energy into electrical impulses.

Marius returned from his Germanic campaign in triumph once again

With Rome safe from northern invaders, Marius now sought to repay the debt to his army by establishing laws by which veterans should receive land after having served their time.

For this he allied himself with the Tribune of the People Lucius Appuleius Saturninus. Saturninus was a ruthless figure not beyond using violence for political means. This political alliance managed to win Marius yet another consulship in 100 BC. In the same year Saturninus brought forward on Marius' behalf proposals by which soldiers should be allotted land on discharge from the army. Also part of the bill was the granting of Roman citizenship to Italian allies who had contributed their fair share in the defeat of the barbarians.

The proposals were eventually accepted, but not without determined opposition and the outbreak of violence in the streets of Rome. Marius had to call his soldiers into to Rome to restore order. But of course the arrival of the troops was not merely a question of keeping the peace. It was an implied threat as to what might happen if veterans should be denied land.

Once more Marius created a precedent of historic proportions. For it was the first time in which it emerged that no-one could rule Rome without the support of the army. Saturninus now however should finally stumble, when he organised the assassination of a political opponent. This was a step too far and the senate issued a senatus consultum ultimum, order of highest authority known to the Roman constitution, ordering Marius to take action against Saturninus.

Marius had no choice but to oblige, arresting his chief political ally. But Saturninus was doomed. He fled with his followers into the Senate House for safety, at which time those who were pursuing them ripped of the roof and pelted them with the tiles until they were dead.

Marius decided this would be a good time to leave Rome for a while. http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/marius.html

With the death of Saturninus and self exile by Marius in 99 BC, a period of relative calm slipped into Roman politics. The calm wouldn't last long, however, and a new Tribune in a mold similar to the Gracchi brothers, came to the forefront. Marcus Livius Drusus was actually the son of a political opponent of the Gracchi, but he took up the cause of the Italian people with a new zeal. Drusus, among several reforms, attempted to distribute land and citizenship for the Latin rights Italian allies.

His objective was actually the preservation and strengthening of the Senate, but in practice it didn't appear as intended. He hoped that by including the Italian allies as voting citizens, he would bring in a new voting force loyal to the traditional Senatorial authority and not to the demagogue tribunes who used popular ideas to incite the Roman mobs. Unfortunately for him, and as a result of their own short sightedness the Senate saw things in a completely different light. As Tribune in 91 BC, Drusus reformed the corrupt court system by promoting 300 of the top Equites into the roles of the Senate, thereby doubling the number of Senators. This altered the financial stake of potential jury members and helped to balance the system. New land and grain laws were introduced to win over the rural and urban plebes respectively. And finally, he introduced the citizenship law that would end in his demise, and open revolt.

After much political wrangling, as was common in the late Republic, Drusus' laws were eventually dismissed, but he persisted in trying to push them through. His actions and proposals, which were holding the angry Italian allies in check as they hoped for a political resolution to their complaints, led directly to his murder late in his term. Stabbed in the thigh by an unknown assailant, and certainly an affiliation of the elite, the death of Drusus fueled the flames of revolt.Marius video

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amicus Romae: a friend of Rome; an ally of Rome who is not a socii and is thus not obligated to send troops ultra vires: beyond the powers; beyond the legal or constitutional powers of a court or office

ultrasonic: having a frequency beyond the audible range ...here's a question, for real, is an ultrasound machine a transducer?

penultimate: next to the last; the penultimate act of a play

Revolt of the Italian Allies (B.C. 90).—The death of Drusus drove the Italians to revolt. The war which followed is known in history as the “Social War,” or the war of the allies (socii). It was, in fact, a war of secession. The purpose of the allies was now, not to obtain the Roman franchise, but to create a new Italian nation, where all might be equal. They accordingly organized a new republic with the central government at Corfinium, a town in the Apennines. The new state was modeled after the government at Rome, with a senate of five hundred members, two consuls, and other magistrates. Nearly all the peoples of central and southern Italy joined in this revolt.

Rome was now threatened with destruction, not by a foreign enemy like the Cimbri and Teutones, but by her own subjects. The spirit of patriotism revived; and the parties ceased for a brief time from their quarrels. Even Marius returned to serve as a legate in the Roman army. A hundred thousand men took the field against an equal number raised by the allies. In the first year the war was unfavorable to Rome. In the second year (B.C. 89) new preparations were made and new commanders were appointed: Marius, on account of his age, was not continued in his command; while L. Cornelius Sulla, who was once a subordinate of Marius, was made chief commander in Campania. Marius felt deeply this slight, and began to be envious of his younger rival. The great credit of bringing this war to a close was due to Pompeius Strabo (the father of Pompey the Great ) and Sulla. The first Italian capital, Corfinium, was taken by Pompeius; and the second capital, Bovianum, was captured by Sulla (B.C. 88). The social war was thus ended; but it had been a great affliction to Italy. It is roughly estimated that three hundred thousand men, Romans and Italians, lost their lives in this struggle. The compensation of this loss was the incorporation of Italy with Rome.

2/26 bis pueri senes :Old men are twice children

Nec amicus officium nec hostis iniuriam mihi intulit, quo in toto non reddidi.:

"No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full"; Sulla's epitaph

senile:having or showing weakness (especially mental weakness) due to old age

hostile: enemy-like The Fall of Marius

At the end of the Social War Sulla was elected Consul for 88 BC just as war with Mithridates was breaking out. Mithridates took control of Asia Minor, slaughtering Roman citizens by the thousands.

Who was Mithridates? While still a child, Mithridates, later King Mithridates VI of Pontus, official "friend" of Rome, developed a reputation that included matricide and a paranoid fear of being poisoned. coin with Mithridates on it.

During the Roman Republic, competing military leaders Sulla and Marius wanted the honor of disposing of the greatest challenge to Roman supremacy since the Punic War general Hannibal Barca. He was expanding his empire, and ignoring rome's orders about what he could invade and whom he could challenge. He started off in what is now Crimea ( it turns out history does repeat itself...) From the end of the second to the middle of the first century B.C, this was the long-lived Mithridates VI of Pontus (132-63 B.C.), a thorn in Rome's side for 40 years. The rivalry between the two Roman generals led to loss of blood at home, but only one of them, Sulla, confronted Mithridates abroad.



Sulla, in his senior Consular position was appointed to command the campaign, but the aged Gaius Marius desperately sought the command for himself. Opposed by the Senate, Marius was unsuccessful through traditional methods, and Sulla assembled his legions and began the march to the east.

No sooner was Sulla out of Rome, however, than Marius, at the age of 70 and probably mentally unbalanced, reverted to his old political tactics of circumventing the system through the Plebeian Tribunes. Sulpicius Rufus, acting on Marius' behalf, proposed that Marius be given command through the citizen assemblies. Extremely popular with the common citizens, Marius was successful and the command was officially and legally transferred. Sulla though, was not a man to be so easily dismissed.

Hearing the news of Marius' appointment and his dismissal, Sulla reversed course and headed back to Rome with his 6 legions. This marked the first time that a Roman commander marched upon Rome with a full army, with malicious intent and against legally appointed government authority. Sulla took Rome with a vengeance, killing Rufus and other Marian supporters. Marius managed to escape through the Italian countryside, but Sulla's men caught up with him near Minturnae in Latium. The ancients suggest that despite Sulla's proclamation for Marius to die, Marius was still larger than life among the army and non-Roman citizens. A Gallic trooper who was supposed to behead Marius was unable to do so when faced by the old legend. The infamous quote, "I cannot kill Gaius Marius" was supposed to have been recorded when the trooper looked into Marius' eyes, and the local residents refused to do him harm. Sending him off to safety by ship, Marius fled to Africa. The political ramifications of helping Marius vs. allowing him to pass were different matters however, and rather than oppose the authorities in Rome he was refused entry to a colony near Carthage. Settling on the island of Cercina with his son, Marius simply bided his time.

Back in Rome, Sulla got his political agenda in order and then set out to deal with Mithradates as originally intended. Lucius Cornelius Cinna ( father in law of Julius Caesar) then took center stage in Roman politics, causing a fervor with his new Italian enfranchisement proposals. Attempting to organize the new countryside citizens into the city existing assemblies, Cinna was removed from his office and exiled from Rome. Much like Sulla, Cinna was not to be denied. Turning to the one man who could help implement his agenda Cinna organized a revolt with Marius and recruited heavily from among the Italians and marched on Rome himself. Marius landed in Italy shortly after with a force of cavalry and supplemented them with locals on his way to join Cinna. On the way, the Roman port of Ostia was sacked to finance the operations and 87 BC turned into a siege of Rome itself. Thousands were killed by Cinna in his purge and his killing only stopped when the Senate surrendered and opened the gates to the city. Marius however, made no arrangements to enter peacefully and took his vengeance on the inside. 5 days of murder and mayhem ruled supreme in which Marius killed anyone with the slightest opposition to him or support of Sulla. Severed heads of his enemies were placed on spears all around the Forum as a show of Marian strength. But in Marius unstable mental condition and advanced age, neutral bystander and foe were often confused. Massacred enemies were equally mixed with the innocent, forever staining the streets and Marius' reputation. Clearly in command through brute force, Marius and Cinna next forced through their own elections as joint Consuls of 86 BC. Before additional plans could be put into action, however, the brief reign of terror ended just 17 days into Marius 7th consulship, when he died of a 'fever'. Once again, violence and bloodshed was proving to be the order of the day in Roman politics. Debate is passe, murder is the currency now. The Republic is dying.

Meanwhile in the East, Sulla is at his height as far as military strength and ability is concerned. The two armies would meet at the town of Chaeronea in Boeotia. Marching south from Thessaly, Archelaus, an able commander, positioned himself on high ground and in a position to cut off Sulla's route of supply and escape. Sulla was forced to give battle in a greatly outnumbered situation. Under a full assault, Sulla's veterans managed to hold under the pressure. Sulla proved his military brilliance by personally ordering the movement of troops to key positions throughout the battle.

Sulla apparently had been in private negotiation with Mithridates to end the war. He wanted to develop easy terms and get the ordeal over as quickly as possible. The quicker it was dealt with, the faster he would be able to settle political matters in Rome. With this in mind, Lucullus and his navy refused to help Fimbria, and Mithridates 'escaped' to Lesbos. Later at Dardanus, Sulla and Mithridates met personally to negotiate terms. With Fimbria, a Roman officer, re-establishing Roman hegemony over the cities of Asia Minor, Mithridates position was completely untenable. Yet Sulla, with his eyes on Rome, offered uncharacteristically mild terms. Mithridates was forced to give up all his conquests (which Sulla and Fimbria had already managed to take back by force), surrender any Roman prisoners, provide a 70 ship fleet to Sulla along with supplies, and pay a tribute of 2,000 to 3,000 gold talents( 75 lbs of gold each). In exchange, Mithridates was able to keep his original kingdom and territory and regain his title of "friend of the Roman people."

Sulla now started to penalize the province of Asia. His veterans were scattered throughout the province and allowed to extort the wealth of local communities. Large fines were placed on the province for lost taxes during their rebellion and the cost of the war. With his army gaining their unorthodox method of 'plunder', it wouldn't be long before Sulla would make his next move.

He made peace with Mithradates in 85, freeing him to pursue his political ambitions. It also freed the Senate to move against him.Sulla refused to cooperate or to compromise with the Senatorial forces, although he did enact legislation that returned much of the power wrested away from them by Marius and the Grachhi returned...under Sulla, no legislation could be brought to the assemblies without first going to the Senate. Nevertheless, the Senate feared Sulla, and rightly so. media type="file" key="06 - Bad To The Bone.mp3" width="240" height="20" The Senate outlawed him in 83, a step that certainly meant civil war. If he submitted to the law, his enemies would at the least exile him if not actually have him executed. This, for Cornelius Sulla, was not an option. It was time to fight or die. He returned, with his army, to Italy. The Senate raised an army of 100,000, leavened by Marius' veterans. But it was commanded by Senators who lacked real skill, and Sulla was a talented field commander. Sulla landed unopposed and marched across Italy gaining easy victories. The real test came under the very walls of Rome. The Senatorial army met Sulla at the Colline Gate in 82 BC and Sulla won a complete victory. His cruelty and his calculation can both be seen in his actions in what came next. Once the Senatorial army surrendered, Sulla ordered that all the Marian veterans be killed on the spot. He knew these veterans were the core of any future resistance, and the most efficient way to deal with them was to execute them. Sulla now stood in something of the position that Marius had in 99. He was at the gates of Rome with an army and no one to oppose him. His actions, however, were quite different. Sulla, with soldiers in tow, called the Senate into session. There, he had his cronies declare that the Republic was threatened (as indeed it was), and the Senate proceeded to elect Sulla dictator. After the six-month period, Sulla called the Senate back into session, his cronies again declared a national emergency, and Sulla was duly elected dictator again. The next time, he was elected dictator for life. Although this was not part of the Roman constitution, since the Senate passed the decree, all was legal. What we have here is a blatant undermining of the system under the cover of legality. Everyone understood what opposing Sulla would mean. The use of political violence that we saw on a modest scale in 133 had now become open warfare for political ends. And, at every step, those doing violence to the system were claiming that they were defending it. Even Sulla. But Sulla raised the ante even further with his extensive use of political murder. When he entered Rome in 82, he made up lists of his enemies. He posted those lists so everyone knew who was marked, and he gave rewards to anyone who would betray them. Those proscribed on the lists were brought to trial, but the trial was a mere sham. They were then either executed or exiled (if they did not first commit suicide or flee) and their estates were confiscated. The technique was horrifyingly effective. Sulla not only published his proscription lists, he changed them from time to time, so that a man might find himself in danger and then suddenly out of danger. He went on editing his lists for over a year, frightening people to no end. Even those who were not proscribed tread lightly lest they find their name on Sulla's lists one day. The proscription lists served another function. After killing thousands in this way, and seizing their estates, Sulla was able to confiscate land and wealth and offices for about 120,000 of his soldiers. This was not generosity on his part: his soldiers were mostly landless men and he had to pay them or face unrest and rebellion.

Dictatorship
Sulla forced the Senate to make him dictator in 82. Although the office was supposed to last for only six months, he became dictator for life. Despite this extraordinary appropriation of power, Sulla showed regard for Republican forms, keeping carefully within the law with the exception of himself. He instituted sweeping reforms -- of the Senate, finances, the army, and the provinces -- all carried through in proper form, though none were left to defy him. He returned control of Rome to the Senate and refused to be drawn back into politics. Once he had implemented all the reforms he thought necessary, the dictator resigned in 79 and retired to his estates where he is said to have surrounded himself with all kinds of prostitutes, drunkards, and his longtime lover, a female impersonator named Metrobius. However, even though he had such a wife at home, he consorted with actresses, harpists, and theatrical people, drinking with them on couches all day long. For these were the men who had most influence with him now: Roscius the comedian, Sorex the archmime, and Metrobius the impersonator of women,  for whom, though past his prime, he continued up to the last to be passionately fond, and made no denial of it.

2  By this mode of life he aggravated a disease which was insignificant in its beginnings, and for a long time he knew not that his bowels were ulcerated. This disease corrupted his whole flesh also, and converted it into worms, so that although many were employed day and night in removing them, what they took away was as nothing compared with the increase upon him, but all his clothing,

p441 baths, hand-basins, and food, were infected with that flux of corruption, so violent was its discharge. 3  Therefore he immersed himself many times a‑day  in water to cleanse and scour his person. But it was of no use; for the change gained upon him rapidly, and the swarm of vermin defied all purification. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sulla*.html --Plutarch He died the following year. http://europeanhistory.boisestate.edu/westciv/romanrev/14.shtml

[|sulla]

